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Dans les pays industriels avancés, l’innovation et l’exploitation des découvertes scientifiques et des technologies nouvelles constituent la principale source de croissance économique sur le long terme et d’amélioration du bien-être social. A l’avenir, les performances d’un pays en matière d’innovation risquent d’être plus vitales encore pour son progrès économique et social. De plus en plus, les pays dont les entreprises n’innovent pas vont se trouver en concurrence directe avec des pays en voie d’industrialisation dont les coûts de main-d’œuvre sont inférieurs et qui maîtrisent de mieux en mieux les technologies et les méthodes commerciales existantes. La mise au point et l’exploitation de produits, de procédés, de services et de systèmes nouveaux et la mise à niveau constante de ceux qu’un pays produit déjà est la seule manière, pour les pays de l’OCDE...

This chapter explores how foundations are mobilising by investing their assets and spending their philanthropic capital to create additional resources for development; how they are strategically advocating to amplify and sustain their impact; and how they are striving to become learning organisations and produce knowledge that can improve development policy and practice through monitoring and evaluation.

Information and communication technology (ICT) refers to both different types of communications networks and the technologies used in them. The ICT sector combines manufacturing and services industries whose products primarily fulfil or enable the function of information processing and communication by electronic means, including transmission and display. The ICT sector contributes to technological progress, output and productivity growth. Its impact can be examined in several ways: directly, through its contribution to output, employment or productivity growth, or indirectly, as a source of technological change affecting other parts of the economy, for instance.

Prices cover the consumer price index (inflation) and its forecast, the producer price index, the price level index, housing prices and share prices. Consumer price indices measure changes in average retail prices of a fixed basket of goods and services representing household consumption, whereas producer price indices measure average movements of prices received by the producers of various commodities; these are often seen as advanced indicators of price changes throughout the economy. Comparative price levels measure the differences in the general price levels of countries; they are dependent on exchange rates and should be treated with caution. Share price indices are calculated from the prices of common shares of companies traded on national or foreign stock exchanges.

National income includes gross and net national income, savings or net lending/net borrowing. It is the total value of the primary incomes receivable within an economy less the total of the primary incomes payable by resident units. Primary incomes are incomes that accrue to institutional units as a consequence of their involvement in processes of production or ownership of assets that may be needed for purposes of production.

These indicators cover trade in goods and services and its forecast, trade by business size, terms of trade, domestic value added in gross exports and import content of exports data. These data show the exchange between residents and non-residents of an economy, their value added in the production process and import content of exports. Data for imports and exports are shown in terms of annual growth and percentage of GDP; they are broken down by business size, net trade and export market growth in USD and percentage share for value added.

Waste is generated at all stages of human activities : during the extraction of raw materials, the processing of raw materials into intermediate and final products, the consumption of final products, etc. Municipal waste is only about 10% of total waste, but its management and treatment often represents more than one-third of public sector financial efforts to abate and contral pollution. Inappropriate waste management impacts human health and the environment through soil and water contamination, air quality, climate, land use and landscape.

Water is essential for economic growth, human health, and the environment. Pressures on water resources are exerted by overexploitation or inefficient use, as well as by degradation of water quality. Governments around the world face significant challenges in managing their water resources effectively. The problems are multiple and complex: billions of people are still without access to safe water and adequate sanitation; and major investment is required to maintain and improve water infrastructure. In some regions competition for water is increasing among the different users and water availability is a constraint on economic development.

Forests are among the most diverse and widespread ecosystems on earth, and have many functions: they provide timber and other forest products; have cultural values; deliver recreation benefits and ecosystem services, including regulation of soil, air and water; are reservoirs for biodiversity; and act as carbon sinks. The impact from human activities on forest health and on natural forest growth and regeneration raises widespread concern. Many forest resources are threatened by overexploitation, fragmentation, degradation of environmental quality and conversion to other types of land use. The main pressures result from human activities, including agriculture expansion, transport infrastructure development, unsustainable forestry, air pollution and intentional burning of forests.

Emissions of pollutants and gases from human activities have many negative effects on the local, regional and global environment. Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions exacerbate the natural greenhouse effect, leading to temperature changes and other consequences for the earth's climate. Air pollutants such as sulphur oxides (SOx), nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO), and volatile organic compounds (VOC) contribute to regional and local air pollution, and affect human health and ecosystems.

The OECD Directorate for Education and Skills helps countries compare their education policies and experiences, and learn from each other through large scale assessment and surveys and comparative policy analysis. This policy papers series presents analysis for policy makers, practitioners and researchers on a wide range of policy issues covered at OECD: from pre-primary to higher education, from policy design to implementation, from student performance and well-being, to teacher training and practices, to school resources.

This biennial publication examines how public policies at national, regional and local levels can support job creation by encouraging business start-ups and self-employment by people from disadvantaged or under-represented social groups (e.g. women, youth, seniors, the unemployed, immigrants, people with disabilities). The reports present self-employment and entrepreneurship indicators for these groups, including self-employment rates, growth expectations, entrepreneurship skills and more. The reports also contain thematic policy chapters and country profiles that highlight hot issues and recent policy developments.

The annual comparative reports of the Education Policy Outlook monitor the evolution of policy landscapes mainly among the education systems of OECD Countries. The Education Policy Outlook follows the premise that knowledge of education policy is as valuable as the capacity to use it. Covering selected topics from early childhood education to adult education, the reports aim to provide a comparative understanding of how priorities and policies are evolving, and how policies can be best implemented or improved over time in their specific contexts.

Pensions refer to payment made to a person (or their dependants) after retirement. Pension systems vary across countries and no single model fits all. Generally, there is a mix of public and private pension provision. Public pensions are statutory, most often financed on a pay-as-you-go basis (where current contributions pay for current benefits) and managed by public institutions. Private pensions are in some cases mandatory, but more often are voluntary, funded, employment-based pension plans or individual retirement savings plans. Pensions may also be supplemented by housing wealth, personal financial wealth, and publicly provided services.

Monetary aggregates are the money circulating in an economy to satisfy its current monetary needs. There are two indicators for monetary aggregates collected by the OECD: "narrow money" (M1); a means of exchange and "broad money" (M3); a way to store value. Monetary aggregates are measured as a seasonally adjusted index based on 2010=100.

Agricultural policy describes the laws, instruments and measures related to the domestic farm sector and trade in agricultural products. Agricultural policies encompass a wide range of issues, including providing sufficient food at reasonable prices for consumers, securing food safety and improving environmental quality. Despite this diversity, policy measures applied in a country within a certain period of time can be brought together and expressed in a set of numbers, called agriculture support indicators, which are comparable across time and between countries.

Leading indicators comprise the composite leading indicator (CLI) and standardised business and consumer confidence indicators. They provide qualitative information useful for monitoring the current economic situation and advance warning of turning points in economic activity.

These indicators cover freight, container and passenger transport, car registrations, road deaths and spending on infrastructure. Freight and container transport are broken down by rail and sea while passenger transport is broken down by road and rail. Infrastructure spending covers maintenance and investment in inland transport and the road and rail components. Passenger car registrations show the growth in registrations over the previous period. Road accidents show the number of casualties and the number of accidents involving casualties.